Information Seeking Models, written strictly for Library & Information Science aspirants (NET / SET / KVS / DSSSB /Librarian/ University exams).
Information seeking models explain how, why, and under what conditions users seek information. Each model emphasizes different dimensions; cognitive, emotional, behavioural, or contextual. For LIS examinations, understanding the origin, structure, stages, and limitations of each model is essential.
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Models of Information Seeking Behaviour
1. Information Seeking Behaviour:
Information Seeking Behaviour refers to the purposeful activities carried out by individuals to identify, search, evaluate, and use information to satisfy an information need. It includes cognitive, emotional, and contextual dimensions and is a core area of study in Library and Information Science.
Models:
2. Wilson’s Model of Information Behaviour
Origin and Development
Proposed by: T. D. Wilson
First proposed: 1981
Revised versions: 1996 and 1999
Basic Idea: Information seeking occurs as a response to an information need, which itself arises from more basic human needs. The process is influenced by several intervening variables.
Key Components and Steps
1. Information Need
A perceived lack of knowledge arising from physiological, cognitive, or affective needs.
2. Context of Information Need
The personal, social, or professional situation in which the need arises.
3. Intervening Variables
Factors that may encourage or hinder information seeking, such as psychological traits, demographics, role-related factors, environmental constraints, and source characteristics.
4. Activating Mechanism
Stress or motivation that pushes the user to seek information.
5. Information Seeking Behaviour
Includes passive attention, passive search, active search, and ongoing search.
6. Information Processing and Use
Information is interpreted, evaluated, and applied.
Important Points
- Most comprehensive and widely accepted model
- Covers information behaviour, seeking, and use
- Integrates theories from psychology and communication
Limitations
- Conceptual and descriptive
- Does not specify detailed search stages
3. Ellis’s Model of Information Seeking Behaviour
Origin
Proposed by: David Ellis
Year: 1989
Modified with Cox: 1993
Nature of the Model
This model identifies common features or activities of information seeking rather than a fixed sequence of stages.
Main Features (Steps)
1. Starting
Identifying initial sources or entry points for information.
2. Chaining
Following references, citations, or links from known sources.
3. Browsing
Semi-directed scanning of sources for potentially useful information.
4. Differentiating
Filtering information sources based on quality, relevance, or authority.
5. Monitoring
Keeping track of new developments in a subject area.
6. Extracting
Systematic examination of sources to extract relevant information.
7. Verifying
Checking accuracy and reliability of information.
8. Ending
Concluding the search when information need is satisfied.
Important Points
- Non-linear and flexible
- Based on empirical studies of researchers
- Focuses on actual user behaviour
Limitations
- Emotional aspects are not addressed
- More suitable for experienced users
4. Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process (ISP) Model
Origin and Revisions
Proposed by: Carol C. Kuhlthau
Initial model: 1991
Expanded version: 2004
Core Concept
Information seeking is a process involving thoughts, feelings, and actions, and users experience uncertainty especially at early stages.
Stages of the ISP
1. Initiation
User becomes aware of a lack of knowledge; feelings of uncertainty dominate.
2. Selection
A general topic or problem is chosen; optimism increases.
3. Exploration
User investigates information broadly; confusion and doubt may arise.
4. Formulation
Focus becomes clearer; uncertainty decreases.
5. Collection
Relevant information is gathered in a focused manner.
6. Presentation
Information is completed and used; satisfaction or dissatisfaction occurs.
Important Points
- Strong emphasis on affective (emotional) dimension
- Highly influential in user education and reference services
Limitations
- Appears linear, though real searching may not be
- Mainly suited to formal research tasks
5. Dervin’s Sense-Making Model
Origin
Proposed by: Brenda Dervin
Year: 1983
Further elaborated during the 1990s
Central Idea
Information seeking is a process of making sense of a situation by bridging a knowledge gap.
Core Elements
1. Situation
The context in time and space in which the user exists.
2. Gap
A gap in knowledge or understanding that creates uncertainty.
3. Bridge
Strategies used to overcome the gap, such as seeking information.
4. Outcome
New understanding, decision-making, or action.
Important Points
- Highly user-centred and context-dependent
- Focuses on meaning and interpretation rather than systems
Limitations
- Abstract and difficult to operationalize
- Less detail on actual search mechanics
6. Belkin’s Anomalous State of Knowledge (ASK) Model
Origin
Proposed by: Nicholas J. Belkin
Year: 1980
Main Concept
Users seek information because they are in an anomalous (incomplete or inadequate) state of knowledge.
Key Ideas
- Users cannot always clearly express their information needs
- Information systems should help users articulate and resolve their anomalies
Importance
- Influential in the design of interactive information retrieval systems
- Shifts focus from queries to user cognition
Limitations
- System-oriented
- Limited consideration of social and emotional factors
7. Krikelas’s Model of Information Seeking
Origin
Proposed by: James Krikelas
Year: 1983
Focus
Information seeking is driven by immediate or deferred information needs.
Key Elements
- Immediate needs require quick action
- Deferred needs are stored for future use
- Information sources may be internal (memory) or external (documents, people)
Importance
- Simple and foundational
- Useful for understanding basic information needs
Limitations
Too simplistic for complex information environments
8. Leckie, Pettigrew and Sylvain’s Model
Origin
Proposed by: Leckie, Pettigrew and Sylvain
Year: 1996
Focus
Information seeking behaviour of professionals.
Core Components
- Work roles
- Tasks
- Information needs
- Information sources
- Awareness and barriers
Importance
- Task-based and domain-specific
- Highlights role of professional context
Limitations
Limited generalizability beyond professional groups